The AI education emergency
How we answered this before
This is not the first time the country had to decide what school is for. Each entry: what happened, who did it, the vote where there was one, and where it landed. Every line links to its source.
- 1787
Law
Northwest Ordinance
The Confederation Congress, the one-house legislature under the Articles of Confederation, adopted the Northwest Ordinance. It states that "schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged."
Confederation Congress (adopted before the two-party system)
Where it landed: The National Archives says its plan was "subsequently used as the country expanded to the Pacific."
National Archives, Northwest Ordinance (1787) archives.gov
- 1862
Together
Morrill Land-Grant Act
Granted each state 30,000 acres of public land for each of its senators and representatives. Proceeds funded colleges teaching agriculture and the mechanic arts.
Sponsored by Rep. Justin Morrill of Vermont; signed by President Abraham Lincoln on July 2, 1862
Senate: passed 32 to 7 on June 10, 1862: Republicans 23 to 5, Democrats 5 to 1, other parties 4 to 1House: no final-passage roll call recorded; on June 17, 1862 the House ordered the previous question on S. 298 by 91 to 25: Republicans 56 to 16, Democrats 13 to 7, other parties 22 to 2
Where it landed: The National Archives says the grants "laid the foundation for a national system of state colleges and universities"; the Second Morrill Act of 1890 required separate land-grant institutions for Black students or proof that admission was not restricted by race, and led to the founding of Alabama A&M, Prairie View A&M and Tuskegee.
Library of Congress, Morrill Act research guide guides.loc.gov National Archives, Morrill Act (1862) archives.gov Voteview roll call RS0370392 voteview.com Voteview roll call RH0370273 voteview.com
- 1867
Passed on a split vote
Original Department of Education
Created the first federal Department of Education "to collect information on schools and teaching that would help the States establish effective school systems."
Congress, H.R. 276 (14 Stat. 434), approved March 2, 1867
House: passed 80 to 44 on June 19, 1866: Republicans 72 to 16, Democrats 0 to 28, other parties 8 to 0
Where it landed: The Department of Education says the agency's "name and location within the Executive Branch have changed" since, while its early focus on gathering information on what works continues.
U.S. Department of Education, Federal Role in Education ed.gov Voteview roll call RH0390268 voteview.com Voteview roll call RS0390486 voteview.com
- 1917
Law
Smith-Hughes Act
An act "to provide for the promotion of vocational education" that paid states to cover salaries of teachers of agriculture, trade, home economics and industrial subjects and created the Federal Board for Vocational Education.
Congress, S. 703 (Public No. 347, 64th Congress)
Where it landed: The Department of Education says vocational education became the next major area of federal aid to schools, followed by the 1946 George-Barden Act.
U.S. Statutes at Large, vol. 39, p. 929 (govinfo) govinfo.gov U.S. Department of Education, Federal Role in Education ed.gov
- 1944
Together
Servicemen's Readjustment Act (GI Bill)
Provided veterans "tuition, subsistence, books and supplies, equipment, and counseling services" so they could continue their schooling.
Signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt
Senate: passed 50 to 0 on March 24, 1944: Republicans 26 to 0, Democrats 23 to 0, other 1 to 0House: passed 388 to 0 on May 18, 1944: Republicans 197 to 0, Democrats 187 to 0, other parties 4 to 0
Where it landed: Within seven years about eight million veterans received educational benefits: about 2.3 million attended colleges and universities, 3.5 million received school training and 3.4 million received on-the-job training.
National Archives, Servicemen's Readjustment Act (1944) archives.gov Voteview roll call RS0780173 voteview.com Voteview roll call RH0780120 voteview.com
- 1946
Law
National School Lunch Act
Made the school lunch program permanent after years of year-to-year authorizations, a basis for "strengthening the nation through better nutrition for our school children."
Signed by President Harry S. Truman (Public Law 396, 79th Congress)
House: passed H.R. 3370 by 276 to 101 on February 21, 1946: Republicans 110 to 56, Democrats 164 to 45, other parties 2 to 0
Where it landed: The Department of Agriculture's School Lunch program is still counted in the federal share of K-12 funding, which the Department of Education puts at about 8 percent.
American Presidency Project, Truman statement on signing the National School Lunch Act presidency.ucsb.edu Voteview roll call RH0790116 voteview.com U.S. Department of Education, Federal Role in Education ed.gov
- 1954
Court
Brown v. Board of Education
The Supreme Court ruled unanimously that state-sanctioned segregation of public schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment: "Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."
Opinion delivered by Chief Justice Earl Warren
Where it landed: On May 31, 1955 (Brown II), the Court unanimously instructed states to begin desegregation plans "with all deliberate speed."
National Archives, Brown v. Board of Education (1954) archives.gov
- 1956
Dug in
The Southern Manifesto
82 Representatives and 19 Senators from former Confederate states signed the "Declaration of Constitutional Principles," which called Brown v. Board an abuse of judicial power and urged southerners to use all "lawful means" to resist school desegregation.
Introduced on the House floor by Rep. Howard Smith of Virginia, chairman of the Rules Committee
Where it landed: The House Historian says that under Smith the Rules Committee "became a graveyard for numerous civil rights initiatives in the 1950s."
U.S. House History, The Southern Manifesto of 1956 history.house.gov
- 1958
Together
National Defense Education Act
Passed in response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik; funded college student loans, science, math and foreign language instruction in schools, graduate fellowships and vocational-technical training. The President called it "an emergency undertaking to be terminated after four years."
Signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower (Public Law 85-864)
Senate: conference report agreed 66 to 15 on August 22, 1958: Republicans 29 to 8, Democrats 37 to 7House: conference report agreed 212 to 85 on August 23, 1958: Republicans 72 to 55, Democrats 140 to 30
Where it landed: The Department of Education calls it "the first example of comprehensive Federal education legislation."
American Presidency Project, Eisenhower statement on signing the NDEA presidency.ucsb.edu U.S. Department of Education, Federal Role in Education ed.gov Voteview roll call RS0850300 voteview.com Voteview roll call RH0850193 voteview.com
- 1965
Passed on a split vote
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Launched federal K-12 programs, including Title I aid for disadvantaged children. At the signing the President said it reached "more than 5 million educationally deprived children" and that since 1946 Congress "tried repeatedly, and failed repeatedly" to pass school aid.
Signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in Johnson City, Texas
House: passed 263 to 153 on March 26, 1965: Republicans 35 to 96, Democrats 228 to 57Senate: passed 73 to 18 on April 9, 1965: Republicans 18 to 14, Democrats 55 to 4
Where it landed: Congress reauthorized it as the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002 and again as the Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015.
American Presidency Project, Johnson remarks on signing the ESEA presidency.ucsb.edu U.S. Department of Education, Federal Role in Education ed.gov Voteview roll call RH0890026 voteview.com Voteview roll call RS0890048 voteview.com White House archives, No Child Left Behind signing release (2002-01-08) georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov Clerk of the House, roll call 665 (2015), S. 1177 to reauthorize the ESEA clerk.house.gov
- 1965
Together
Higher Education Act
Authorized federal aid for college, including need-based scholarships of up to $1,000 a year, part-time jobs and low-interest loans.
Signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in San Marcos, Texas
Senate: passed 79 to 3 on September 2, 1965: Republicans 25 to 0, Democrats 54 to 3House: conference report agreed 313 to 63 on October 20, 1965: Republicans 75 to 40, Democrats 238 to 23
Where it landed: The Department of Education says its programs now provide grant, loan and work-study aid to more than 12 million postsecondary students.
American Presidency Project, Johnson remarks on signing the Higher Education Act presidency.ucsb.edu U.S. Department of Education, Federal Role in Education ed.gov Voteview roll call RS0890215 voteview.com Voteview roll call RH0890197 voteview.com
- 1972
Together
Education Amendments of 1972 (Title IX)
Title IX states: "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance." The law also created grants for eligible college students.
Signed by President Richard Nixon, who called its busing provisions "inadequate, misleading, and entirely unsatisfactory"
Senate: conference report agreed 63 to 15 on May 24, 1972: Republicans 30 to 4, Democrats 32 to 10, other 1 to 1House: conference report agreed 218 to 180 on June 8, 1972: Republicans 90 to 76, Democrats 128 to 104
Where it landed: The Department of Education says Title IX, with Title VI and Section 504, made civil rights enforcement "a fundamental and long-lasting focus" of the Department.
U.S. Department of Justice, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 justice.gov American Presidency Project, Nixon statement on signing the Education Amendments of 1972 presidency.ucsb.edu U.S. Department of Education, Federal Role in Education ed.gov Voteview roll call RS0920589 voteview.com Voteview roll call RH0920451 voteview.com
- 1975
Together
Education for All Handicapped Children Act
Required support for "educating all handicapped children in our Nation" (Public Law 94-142). The President signed it while calling its authorization levels "excessive and unrealistic."
Sponsored by Sen. Harrison Williams (Democrat); signed by President Gerald Ford
Senate: conference report agreed 87 to 7 on November 19, 1975: Republicans 28 to 7, Democrats 57 to 0, other parties 2 to 0House: conference report agreed 404 to 7 on November 18, 1975: Republicans 133 to 4, Democrats 271 to 3
Where it landed: Renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990; in 2022 to 2023 more than 66% of children with disabilities spent 80% or more of their school day in general education classrooms.
American Presidency Project, Ford statement on signing the EHA presidency.ucsb.edu U.S. Department of Education, A History of the IDEA sites.ed.gov Voteview roll call RS0940513 voteview.com Voteview roll call RH0940531 voteview.com
- 1979
Passed on a split vote
Department of Education Organization Act
Created a Cabinet-level Department of Education separate from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (Public Law 96-88).
Signed by President Jimmy Carter, who credited Rep. Jack Brooks, Sen. Abe Ribicoff, Sen. Chuck Percy and Rep. Frank Horton
Senate: conference report agreed 69 to 22 on September 24, 1979: Republicans 18 to 17, Democrats 51 to 4, other 0 to 1House: conference report agreed 215 to 201 on September 27, 1979: Republicans 30 to 124, Democrats 185 to 77
Where it landed: The Department of Education says Congress established it as a Cabinet-level agency in 1980; in 2025 an executive order directed steps toward its closure.
American Presidency Project, Carter statement on signing S. 210 presidency.ucsb.edu U.S. Department of Education, Federal Role in Education ed.gov Voteview roll call RS0960309 voteview.com Voteview roll call RH0960468 voteview.com
- 1983
Report
A Nation at Risk
A report by the National Commission on Excellence in Education, chartered by Education Secretary Terrell Bell, warning that "the educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity."
National Commission on Excellence in Education; report to the American people and the Secretary of Education, April 1983
Where it landed: ASCD, an educator association, wrote in 2013 that the report "became the catalyst for standards-based, testing-focused education reform at the federal, state, and local levels for three decades."
A Nation at Risk, archived ed.gov text (UNT web archive) webarchive.library.unt.edu ASCD Policy Points, A Nation at Risk? (April 2013) files.ascd.org
- 2002
Together
No Child Left Behind Act
Required statewide accountability systems with annual testing in reading and math for all students in grades 3 to 8 and the goal that all student groups reach proficiency within 12 years. The White House said it "passed Congress with overwhelming bipartisan majorities."
Sponsored by Rep. John Boehner (Republican); signed by President George W. Bush
House: conference report agreed 381 to 41 on December 13, 2001: Republicans 183 to 33, Democrats 198 to 6, Independents 0 to 2Senate: conference report agreed 87 to 10 on December 18, 2001: Republicans 44 to 3, Democrats 43 to 6, Independent 0 to 1
Where it landed: In 2011 the President said Congress had not been able to fix its flaws and began granting states waivers from key provisions.
White House archives, President signs landmark No Child Left Behind education bill (2002-01-08) georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov Clerk of the House, roll call 497 (2001) clerk.house.gov Voteview roll call RH1070492 voteview.com Voteview roll call RS1070371 voteview.com White House archives, Remarks by the President on No Child Left Behind Flexibility obamawhitehouse.archives.gov
- 2009
Executive action
Race to the Top
A competitive grant program funded with $4 billion from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009; 46 states and the District of Columbia applied and 19 states received funding.
Administration of President Barack Obama, U.S. Department of Education
Where it landed: The federal evaluation released in October 2016 found that "the relationship between RTT and student outcomes was not clear."
White House archives, Race to the Top obamawhitehouse.archives.gov Institute of Education Sciences, Implementation and Impact Evaluation of Race to the Top and School Improvement Grants ies.ed.gov
- 2011
Dug in
No Child Left Behind waivers
With reauthorization stalled, the President announced waivers from key No Child Left Behind provisions, saying: "Congress hasn't been able to do it. So I will."
President Barack Obama, with Rep. George Miller and Sen. Tom Harkin present
Where it landed: Congress replaced No Child Left Behind with the Every Student Succeeds Act in December 2015.
White House archives, Remarks by the President on No Child Left Behind Flexibility obamawhitehouse.archives.gov American Presidency Project, Remarks on signing the Every Student Succeeds Act presidency.ucsb.edu
- 2015
Together
Every Student Succeeds Act
Reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and replaced No Child Left Behind, giving states "new flexibility to tailor their improvement plans" with federal oversight (Public Law 114-95).
Sponsored by Sen. Lamar Alexander (Republican, Tennessee); signed by President Barack Obama, who credited Sens. Alexander and Patty Murray and Reps. John Kline and Bobby Scott
House: conference report agreed 359 to 64 on December 2, 2015: Republicans 178 to 64, Democrats 181 to 0Senate: conference report agreed 85 to 12 on December 9, 2015: Republicans 40 to 12, Democrats 44 to 0, Independent 1 to 0
Where it landed: At the signing the President said "Members of Congress from both parties have come together to revise our national education law."
American Presidency Project, Remarks on signing the Every Student Succeeds Act presidency.ucsb.edu Clerk of the House, roll call 665 (2015) clerk.house.gov Voteview roll call RS1140334 voteview.com
- 2020
Together
CARES Act school relief (ESSER I)
The CARES Act gave the Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief Fund $13.229 billion for schools during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Congress, H.R. 748; enacted March 27, 2020
Senate: passed 96 to 0 on March 25, 2020: Republicans 49 to 0, Democrats 45 to 0, Independents 2 to 0
Where it landed: A second round of $54.311 billion followed in the CRRSA Act on December 27, 2020.
Congressional Research Service R47027, Education Stabilization Fund Programs everycrsreport.com Voteview roll call RS1160508 voteview.com
- 2021
Passed on a split vote
American Rescue Plan school relief (ESSER III)
The American Rescue Plan Act gave the school emergency relief fund $122.775 billion, bringing the three rounds to $190.315 billion.
Congress, H.R. 1319; enacted March 11, 2021
Senate: passed 50 to 49 on March 6, 2021: Republicans 0 to 49, Democrats 48 to 0, Independents 2 to 0House: agreed to the Senate amendment 220 to 211 on March 10, 2021: Republicans 0 to 210, Democrats 220 to 1
Where it landed: The funds were available through September 30, 2023, extended under the Tydings amendment to September 30, 2024.
Congressional Research Service R47027, Education Stabilization Fund Programs everycrsreport.com Voteview roll call RS1170110 voteview.com Voteview roll call RH1170071 voteview.com
- 2025
Executive action
Executive Order 14242 on the Department of Education
Directed the Secretary of Education to "take all necessary steps to facilitate the closure of the Department of Education."
President Donald J. Trump
Where it landed: On July 14, 2025 the Supreme Court let layoffs proceed while lawsuits continue, leaving the Department about 2,183 employees, down from about 4,133; Justices Sotomayor, Kagan and Jackson dissented.
White House, Improving Education Outcomes by Empowering Parents, States, and Communities whitehouse.gov K-12 Dive, Supreme Court allows Education Department layoffs (2025-07-14) k12dive.com
- 2025
Executive action
Executive Order 14277 on AI education
States the policy "to promote AI literacy and proficiency among Americans"; created the White House Task Force on Artificial Intelligence Education and the Presidential Artificial Intelligence Challenge, and directed the Secretary of Education to prioritize AI in teacher-training grants.
President Donald J. Trump
Where it landed: By June 30, 2025 more than 65 organizations had signed the White House "Pledge to America's Youth: Investing in AI Education."
White House, Advancing Artificial Intelligence Education for American Youth whitehouse.gov THE Journal, More than 60 organizations sign White House pledge (2025-06-30) thejournal.com
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